Addressing the Paramilitary–Organised Crime Nexus in War-to-Peace Transitions: A Framework for Policymakers
June 2026
Briefing Note 43
Professor Jonathan Goodhand (SOAS, University of London)
Dr Patrick Meehan (University of Manchester)
SOC ACE Project: Para-statal armed groups, illicit economies and organised crime
PUBLICATION SUMMARY
This briefing note forms part of a series of publications generated through the Policy Lab convened by Goodhand and Meehan, and supported by SOC ACE, to explore new approaches to addressing the paramilitary-organised crime nexus and how better to integrate responses.
The paramilitary–organised crime nexus represents a persistent and under-addressed challenge in war-to-peace transitions. Paramilitaries are not residual actors that fade away with the end of large-scale conflict; rather, they often adapt, entrench themselves in criminalised peace economies, and continue to shape governance, security and livelihoods at local, national and transnational levels. Policy responses that treat paramilitaries as either purely criminal actors or temporary security partners risk misunderstanding their durability, social embeddedness and political significance.
This Briefing Note provides a typology for assessing policy responses to the paramilitary-organised crime nexus and sets out guidance on how to strengthen understanding of and engagement with the nexus for improved policy outcomes. It defines state-paramilitary relationships and the paramilitary-organised crime nexus, emphasising how the understanding of each shapes policy responses. It goes on to outline the assumptions, challenges and trade-offs involved in four response types, namely, avoidance; co-option and incorporation; criminalisation and law enforcement; and transformation. And draws on these to provide guiding questions that can be integrated into conflict analysis to better understand the paramilitary-organised crime nexus, as well as setting out starting points for engaging with the nexus, including supporting systemic approaches, prioritising harm and violence reduction, and acknowledging and managing trade-offs.
In doing so, the Briefing Note demonstrates that there is no single ‘best’ approach to addressing the nexus and that effective engagement requires a shift away from technocratic or template-based interventions towards context-specific, politically informed strategies that recognise paramilitaries as durable political actors and support incremental, carefully sequenced interventions that are grounded in realistic assessments of power and trade-offs and can help to create the conditions for more sustainable peace and reduced violence over time.
RELATED PUBLICATIONS
Read the full series of publications from Jonathan Goodhand and Patrick Meehan’s Policy Lab on ‘Addressing the Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus in War-to-Peace Transitions’.
Paramilitaries and Organised Crime in War-to-Peace Transitions: Policy Challenges and
Responses
How have policymakers sought to address the paramilitary-organised crime nexus, what are the challenges and what are the lessons? Read here…
Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus: Implications for supporting peace processes
How does the paramilitary–organised crime nexus shape war‑to‑peace transitions, and what are the implications for peace process support? Read here…
Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus: Implications for DDR and SSR Programmes
DDR/SSR in paramilitary-affected contexts requires tailored strategies, improved intelligence & analysis, conditionality for participation, and government coordination. Read here…
Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus: Implications for Development Programming
What should development actors consider when programming to address paramilitary-organised crime nexus in war-to-peace transitions? Read here…
Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus: Implications for Addressing Organised Crime
How to address organised crime when paramilitary criminal activities are embedded in political, territorial and governance systems rather than being solely profit-driven? Read here…
Undertaking Political Economy Analysis of the Paramilitary–Organised Crime Nexus
A practical tool to guide policymakers and practitioners in undertaking political economy analysis of the paramilitary-organised crime nexus. Read here…
Colombia Case Study: Political Negotiations with Paramilitary ‘Allies’
Negotiations with paramilitaries requires transparency, formal structures and accountability. DDR should be combined with strategies to dismantle political-criminal networks, extend governance and create economic alternatives. Read here…
N. Ireland Case Study: A ‘Public Health’ Approach to the Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus
Integrated, cross-department, community-based approaches can help reduce paramilitary harm and legitimacy but are unlikely to secure disbandment on their own. Read here…
Myanmar Case Study: The Paramilitary-Organised Crime Nexus in Borderlands
Responses must recognise the structural role of militias, focus on financial and criminal networks, mitigate harms and engage seriously with the opportunities and limitations of working with regional powers. Read here…
Read publications from Jonathan Goodhand and Patrick Meehan from their overarching research project, Parastatal Armed Groups, Illicit Economies and Organised Crime.
Coercive Brokerage: The Paramilitary-Organized Crime Nexus in Borderlands and Frontiers
Explores the nexus between paramilitaries, illicit economies and organised crime, advancing a conceptual framework for analysing in borderland and frontier regions. Read here….
Coercive Brokerage: Paramilitaries, Illicit Economies and Organised Crime in the Frontiers of Afghanistan, Colombia
Examines the nexus between paramilitaries, illicit economies and organised crime through case studies of Afghanistan, Myanmar and Colombia borderlands. Read here…